This article systematizes the theoretical foundations for developing historical thinking in school and university history education and proposes an integrative model that unites epistemological, cognitive, sociocultural, and pedagogical-design perspectives. Drawing on philosophy of history, educational psychology, and history education scholarship, the paper clarifies historical thinking as a disciplinary way of knowing organized around evidence, sourcing, contextualization, corroboration, causation, change over time, historical significance, and ethical reflection. It argues that progress in historical thinking depends on students’ movement from everyday narratives about the past toward disciplined inquiry practices supported by explicit instruction in second-order concepts and by scaffolded engagement with sources. The methodology is a conceptual analysis and integrative literature review of landmark and contemporary works that describe the nature of historical knowledge, the development of learners’ understanding, and effective instructional designs. Results synthesize five principles for cultivating historical thinking—epistemic transparency, concept-rich progression, inquiry with authentic sources, dialogic multiperspectivity, and formative assessment aligned to disciplinary criteria—embedded in a staged pedagogy that begins with structured apprenticeship and culminates in autonomous inquiry. The discussion addresses tensions between narrative coherence and evidentiary complexity, the risk of presentism, and the role of affect and identity in motivating inquiry while maintaining rigorous standards of proof. The conclusion emphasizes that historical thinking is not a generic critical-thinking skill but a specialized literacy best developed through deliberate practice within supportive communities of inquiry and assessment systems that value disciplinary reasoning.

Historical thinking, history education, evidence and sourcing, contextualization

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