Uremic toxins, which accumulate due to impaired renal function, have significant systemic effects, including detrimental impacts on the oral mucosa. These toxins are classified into small water-soluble molecules, protein-bound toxins, and middle molecules, each exerting unique pathological effects. This review explores the mechanisms through which these toxins contribute to epithelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Understanding these interactions is essential for developing targeted therapeutic strategies to mitigate their impact on oral health.

Modern research highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach that considers both morphological changes and immune responses, ultimately allowing physicians to diagnose infertility more accurately and select effective treatment strategies. Therefore, the use of hysteroscopy and immunological markers in reproductive medicine is becoming an integral part of comprehensive examinations for women experiencing infertility issues.

Uremic toxins, chronic kidney disease, hemodialysis

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