This article undertakes a comparative study of the pedagogical effectiveness of artificial intelligence tools in the higher education systems of different countries. The study proceeds from the distinction between the technological efficiency of such tools, measured by the speed and quality of task completion, and their pedagogical effectiveness, measured by the durable learning they produce, and substantiates the existence of an effectiveness paradox in which gains in performance may coincide with losses in learning. The author elaborates a six-criterion model of pedagogical effectiveness, comprising learning gain, cognitive autonomy, academic integrity, equity of access, teacher agency and data governance, and applies it to four national-institutional models of AI integration: the regulatory-precautionary, the decentralised-institutional, the state-directed strategic and the transitional models. The analysis establishes that no model dominates across all criteria and that each embodies a characteristic structure of trade-offs. The conceptual polemic between R. Luckin and N. Selwyn concerning the educational promise of artificial intelligence is subjected to critical examination. The findings demonstrate that pedagogical effectiveness is a property not of the tool but of the configuration formed by the tool, the pedagogical design and the institutional context.
A Comparative Study of The Pedagogical Effectiveness of Artificial Intelligence Tools in The Higher Education Systems of Different Countries
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