This article examines a comparative-legal analysis of how sale, exchange, gift, and life-annuity contracts for the alienation of immovable property are constructed across the Romano-Germanic, Anglo-American, and mixed legal families, drawing on the legislation and legal literature of Germany, France, Switzerland, England and Wales, the United States, the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, China, and Japan. Using a formal-legal, comparative, and historical-legal method, the study evaluates each national model against four criteria: the required form of the contract, the moment at which title actually passes, the constitutive or declaratory character of state registration, and the mechanisms that make a transaction opposable to third parties. The comparison shows that national models remain genuinely diverse in how they balance notarial prevention against market-based safeguards such as title insurance, yet are converging on constitutive state registration as the backbone of transactional security, a convergence reflected in the World Bank’s Doing Business rankings. The analysis further traces the Roman-law and, for Central Asia, Islamic-law roots of these constructions, compares remedies for breach across systems, and follows a growing trend toward digitalizing immovable-property transactions, illustrated by Estonia, Georgia, and Sweden.
Distinctive Features of Contractual Constructions for The Alienation of Immovable Property in Foreign Legal Systems
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